01204nas a2200193 4500008004100000245003700041210003600078260001200114300000800126520064300134100002000777700002200797700002500819700002900844700002200873700002400895700001800919856007300937 2000 eng d00aTHERM 2.1 NFRC Simulation Manual0 aTHERM 21 NFRC Simulation Manual c07/2000 a2603 a

This document, the THERM 2.1 NFRC Simulation Manual, discusses how to use THERM to model products for NFRC certified simulations and assumes that the user is already familiar with the THERM program. In order to learn how to use THERM, it is necessary to become familiar with the material in the THERM User's Manual.

In general, this manual references the THERM User's Manual rather than repeating the information.

If there is a conflict between the THERM User's Manual and the THERM 2.1 NFRC Simulation Manual, the THERM 2.1 NFRC Simulation Manual takes precedence.

1 aMitchell, Robin1 aKohler, Christian1 aArasteh, Dariush, K.1 aFinlayson, Elizabeth, U.1 aHuizenga, Charlie1 aCurcija, Dragan, C.1 aCarmody, John uhttps://facades.lbl.gov/publications/therm-21-nfrc-simulation-manual01203nas a2200181 4500008004100000050001500041245008900056210006900145260002600214520056200240100002200802700002500824700002900849700002000878700002400898700002400922856007500946 1999 eng d aLBNL-4399100aTHERM 2.0: A Building Component Model for Steady-State Two-Dimensional Heat Transfer0 aTHERM 20 A Building Component Model for SteadyState TwoDimension aKyoto, Japanc09/19993 a

THERM 2.0 is a state-of-the-art software program, available without cost, that uses the finite-element method to model steady-state, two-dimensional heat-transfer problems. It includes a powerful simulation engine combined with a simple, interactive interface and graphic results. Although it was developed primarily to model thermal properties of windows, it is appropriate for other building components such as walls, doors, roofs, and foundations, and is useful for modeling thermal bridges in many other contexts, such as the design of equipment.

1 aHuizenga, Charlie1 aArasteh, Dariush, K.1 aFinlayson, Elizabeth, U.1 aMitchell, Robin1 aGriffith, Brent, T.1 aCurcija, Dragan, C. uhttps://facades.lbl.gov/publications/therm-20-building-component-model02296nas a2200169 4500008004100000024001100041245004100052210004100093260001200134520179000146100002201936700002901958700002201987700002002009700002102029856007602050 1999 eng d aBS 42200aToward a Virtual Building Laboratory0 aToward a Virtual Building Laboratory c03/19993 a

Buildings account for about one-third of all energy used in the US and about two-thirds of all electricity, with associated environmental impacts.(EIA 1996) After more than 20 years of DOE-supported research universities and national laboratories, a great deal is known about the energy performance of buildings and especially their components and subsystems. The development and market introduction of improved energy efficient technology, such as low-E windows and electronic ballasts, have helped reduce energy use, and the resultant savings will increase, as use of the new technologies becomes more widespread. A variety of approaches to speed market penetration have been and are being pursued, including information dissemination, research to evaluate performance and development of computer tools for making energy performance simulations available to architects and engineers at the earliest design stages. Public-domain computer building energy simulation models, (BLAST_Support_Office 1992; Winkelmann, Birdsall et al. 1993) a controversial idea 20 years ago, have been extremely successful in facilitating the design of more energy-efficient buildings and providing the technical basis for improved state building codes, federal guidelines, and voluntary standards. But the full potential of savings, estimated at 50% of current consumption or $100 billion/year, (Bevington and Rosenfeld 1990; Todesco 1996; Holdren 1997; Kolderup and Syphers 1997; ORNL, LBNL et al. 1997) will require that architects and engineers take an integrated look at buildings beginning in the early design phase, with increasing use of sophisticated, complex and interrelated building systems. This puts a greater burden on the designer and engineer to make accurate engineering decisions.

1 aKlems, Joseph, H.1 aFinlayson, Elizabeth, U.1 aOlsen, Thomas, H.1 aBanks, David, W1 aPallis, Jani, M. uhttps://facades.lbl.gov/publications/toward-virtual-building-laboratory02194nas a2200181 4500008004100000050001500041245007900056210006900135260003100204520156500235100002501800700002901825700001901854700002201873700002001895700002301915856007401938 1998 eng d aLBNL-4215100aState-of-the-Art Software for Window Energy-Efficiency Rating and Labeling0 aStateoftheArt Software for Window EnergyEfficiency Rating and La aPacific Grove, CAc08/19983 a

Measuring the thermal performance of windows in typical residential buildings is an expensive proposition. Not only is laboratory testing expensive, but each window manufacturer typically offers hundreds of individual products, each of which has different thermal performance properties. With over a thousand window manufacturers nationally, a testing-based rating system would be prohibitively expensive to the industry and to consumers.

Beginning in the early 1990s, simulation software began to be used as part of a national program for rating window U-values. The rating program has since been expanded to include Solar Hear Gain Coefficients and is now being extended to annual energy performance.

This paper describes four software packages available to the public from Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL). These software packages are used to evaluate window thermal performance: RESFEN (for evaluating annual energy costs), WINDOW (for calculating a products thermal performance properties), THERM (a preprocessor for WINDOW that determines two-dimensional heat-transfer effects), and Optics (a preprocessor for WINDOWs glass database).

Software not only offers a less expensive means than testing to evaluate window performance, it can also be used during the design process to help manufacturers produce windows that will meet target specifications. In addition, software can show small improvements in window performance that might not be detected in actual testing because of large uncertainties in test procedures.

1 aArasteh, Dariush, K.1 aFinlayson, Elizabeth, U.1 aHuang, Yu, Joe1 aHuizenga, Charlie1 aMitchell, Robin1 aRubin, Michael, D. uhttps://facades.lbl.gov/publications/state-art-software-window-energy01900nas a2200181 4500008004100000050001500041245014300056210006900199260002500268490001600293520122000309100002201529700002501551700002901576700002001605700002401625856006901649 1998 eng d aLBNL-4210200aTeaching Students about Two-Dimensional Heat Transfer Effects in Buildings, Building Components, Equipment, and Appliances Using THERM 2.00 aTeaching Students about TwoDimensional Heat Transfer Effects in  aChicago, ILc01/19990 v105, Part 13 a

THERM 2.0 is a state-of-the-art software program, available for free, that uses the finite-element method to model steady-state, two-dimensional heat-transfer effects. It is being used internationally in graduate and undergraduate laboratories and classes as an interactive educational tool to help students gain a better understanding of heat transfer. THERM offers students a powerful simulation engine combined with a simple, interactive interface and graphic results. Although it was developed to model thermal properties of building components such as windows, walls, doors, roofs, and foundations, it is useful for modeling thermal bridges in many other contexts, such as the design of equipment. These capabilities make THERM a useful teaching tool in classes on: heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC); energy conservation; building design; and other subjects where heat-transfer theory and applications are important. THERMs state-of-the-art interface and graphic presentation allow students to see heat-transfer paths and to learn how changes in materials affect heat transfer. THERM is an excellent tool for helping students understand the practical application of heat-transfer theory.

1 aHuizenga, Charlie1 aArasteh, Dariush, K.1 aFinlayson, Elizabeth, U.1 aMitchell, Robin1 aGriffith, Brent, T. uhttps://facades.lbl.gov/publications/teaching-students-about-two01730nas a2200157 4500008004100000050002100041245009800062210006900160520114800229100002901377700002001406700002501426700002201451700002401473856007501497 1998 eng d aLBL-37371 Rev. 200aTHERM 2.0: a PC Program for Analyzing Two-Dimensional Heat Transfer through Building products0 aTHERM 20 a PC Program for Analyzing TwoDimensional Heat Transfer3 a

THERM is a state-of-the-art, Microsoft Windows?-based computer program developed at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) for use by building component manufacturers, engineers, educators, students, architects, and others interested in heat transfer. Using THERM, you can model two-dimensional heat-transfer effects in building components such as windows, walls, foundations, roofs, and doors; appliances; and other products where thermal bridges are of concern. THERM's heat-transfer analysis allows you to evaluate a product?s energy efficiency and local temperature patterns, which may relate directly to problems with condensation, moisture damage, and structural integrity.

This version of THERM includes several new technical and user interface features; the most significant is a radiation view-factor algorithm. This feature increases the accuracy of calculations in situations where you are analyzing non-planar surfaces that have different temperatures and exchange energy through radiation heat transfer. This heat-transfer mechanism is important in greenhouse windows, hollow cavities, and some aluminum frames.

1 aFinlayson, Elizabeth, U.1 aMitchell, Robin1 aArasteh, Dariush, K.1 aHuizenga, Charlie1 aCurcija, Dragan, C. uhttps://facades.lbl.gov/publications/therm-20-pc-program-analyzing-two01722nas a2200169 4500008004100000245006100041210006100102260003100163490001600194520115400210100002501364700002901389700002401418700001601442700002201458856007201480 1997 eng d00aGuidelines for Modeling Projecting Fenestration Products0 aGuidelines for Modeling Projecting Fenestration Products aSan Francisco, CAc01/19980 v104, Part 13 a

Heat transfer patterns in projecting fenestration products (greenhouse windows, skylights, etc.) are different than those with typical planar window products. The projecting surfaces often radiate to each other, thereby invalidating the commonly used assumption that fenestration product interior surfaces radiate to a uniform room air temperature. The convective portion of the surface heat transfer coefficient is also significantly different from the one used with planar geometries, and is even more dependent on geometry and location. Projecting fenestration product profiles must therefore be modeled in their entirety. This paper presents the results of complete cross section, variable film-coefficient, 2-D heat transfer modeling of two greenhouse windows using the next generation of window specific heat transfer modeling tools. The use of variable film-coefficient models is shown to increase the accuracy with which simulation tools can compute U-factors. Simulated U-factors are also determined using conventional constant film coefficient algorithms. The results from both sets of simulations are compared with measured values.

1 aArasteh, Dariush, K.1 aFinlayson, Elizabeth, U.1 aCurcija, Dragan, C.1 aBaker, Jeff1 aHuizenga, Charlie uhttps://facades.lbl.gov/publications/guidelines-modeling-projecting01962nas a2200169 4500008004100000050001500041245010000056210006900156260003100225490001600256520135300272100002401625700002901649700002101678700002501699856006801724 1997 eng d aLBNL-4069000aThe Significance of Bolts in the Thermal Performance of Curtain-Wall Frames for Glazed Façades0 aSignificance of Bolts in the Thermal Performance of CurtainWall  aSan Francisco, CAc01/19980 v104, Part 13 a

Curtain walls are assemblies of glazings and metal frames that commonly form the exterior glass façades of commercial buildings. Evaluating the thermal performance of the bolts that hold curtain wall glazings in place is necessary to accurately rate the overall thermal performance of curtain walls. Using laboratory tests and computer simulations, we assessed the thermal performance of several different configurations of bolts and glazings. Curtain-wall samples were tested in the infrared thermography laboratory at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) in Berkeley, California. Experimental results were compared to two-dimensional simulations approximating the thermal effect of the bolts using the parallel path and the isothermal planes calculation methods. We conclude that stainless steel bolts minimally affect curtain-wall thermal performance (approximately 18%) when spaced at least nine inches apart, which is the industry standard. Performance is increasingly compromised when there is less than nine inches between bolts or when steel bolts are used. We also show that the isothermal planes method of approximating curtain wall thermal performance can be used with 2-D heat transfer software typical of that used in the window industry to give conservative results for the thermal bridging effect caused by bolts.

1 aGriffith, Brent, T.1 aFinlayson, Elizabeth, U.1 aYazdanian, Mehry1 aArasteh, Dariush, K. uhttps://facades.lbl.gov/publications/significance-bolts-thermal03749nas a2200193 4500008004100000245010100041210006900142260003400211520306200245100002903307700002503336700002303361700001803384700002103402700002203423700002403445700001603469856007003485 1995 eng d00aAdvances in Thermal and Optical Simulations of Fenestration Systems: The Development of WINDOW 50 aAdvances in Thermal and Optical Simulations of Fenestration Syst aClearwater Beach, FLc12/19953 a

WINDOW is a personal-computer-based computer program used by manufacturers, researchers, and consumers to evaluate the thermal performance properties (U-factors, solar heat gain and shading coefficients, and visible transmittances) of complete windows and other fenestration systems. While WINDOW is used by thousands of users in the United States and internationally and is at the foundation of the National Fenestration Rating Council's U-factor and solar heat gain property procedures, improvements to the program are still necessary for it to meet user needs. Version 5, intended for release in late 1995, is being developed to meet these needs for increased accuracy, a flexible and state-of-the-art user interface, and the capabilities to handle more product types.

WINDOW 5 includes the capabilities to define and model the thermal performance of frames/dividers and their associated edge effects. Currently, such an analysis must be performed outside of WINDOW and requires simplifications to be made to frame profiles or is based on the use of generic frame and edge correlations. WINDOW's two-dimensional thermal model is composed of four sections: a graphical input, automatic grid generation, an finite-element analysis (FEA) solution, and the display of results. In the graphical input section, users are able to directly import a computer-aided design (CAD) drawing or a scanned image of a window profile, replicate its exact geometry, and assign material types and boundary conditions. The automatic grid generation is transparent to the user, with the exception of the requirement that complex shapes (i.e., an aluminum extrusion) be broken down into simpler polyshapes. Inclusion of an automatic grid generation makes detailed "true geometry" frame-and-edge heat-transfer analysis accessible to users without extensive knowledge of numerical methods of heat-transfer analysis. After the cross section is meshed it is sent to the FEA engine for solution and the results are returned. A postprocessor allows for the visual display of temperature and heat flux plots. Note that while this two-dimensional heat-transfer tool is being developed specifically for fenestration products, it also can be used to analyze other building envelope components.

WINDOW 5 also will include a built-in version of a national laboratory's program that allows the user to estimate the orientation-dependent annual energy impacts of a given window in a typical residence in various U.S. climates. This program is based on regressions to a database of DOE2.1 runs. Future versions will include a similar feature for commercial buildings.

Other technical additions include an improved angular/ spectral model for coated and uncoated glazings, the ability to analyze the optical properties of nonhomogeneous layers, and the ability to model the effects of laminated glazing layers. A door module permits the user to compute the total U-factors of exterior doors based on component U-factors calculated using the two-dimensional FEA module.

1 aFinlayson, Elizabeth, U.1 aArasteh, Dariush, K.1 aRubin, Michael, D.1 aSadlier, John1 aSullivan, Robert1 aHuizenga, Charlie1 aCurcija, Dragan, C.1 aBeall, Mark uhttps://facades.lbl.gov/publications/advances-thermal-and-optical01718nas a2200157 4500008004100000050001500041245006500056210006500121260002900186520117200215100002501387700002901412700002301441700001801464856007801482 1995 eng d aLBNL-4168000aRecent Technical Improvements to the WINDOW Computer Program0 aRecent Technical Improvements to the WINDOW Computer Program aToronto, Canadac06/19953 a

The WINDOW series of computer programs has been used since 1985 to model the thermal and optical properties of windows. Each succeeding version of WINDOW has brought its user base new technical capabilities, improvements to the user interface, and greater accuracy. Technical improvements to the current version, which will be released as version 5, are at first being released as stand-alone programs. This paper summarizes the capabilities and algorithms of two of these programs, THERM and LAMINATE. A third stand alone program, RESFEN, which calculates the annual energy effects of specific windows in a typical house throughout the US, will also be incorporated into WINDOW 5; because this program is already in use and documented, it is not discussed in this paper. THERM allows the user to evaluate two dimensional (2-D) heat transfer effects through the solid elements of a window while LAMINATE determines the optical properties of an individual glazing layer with an applied film. Both of these programs are undergoing final development at the time of this writing and will be released as separate programs before they are incorporated into WINDOW 5.

1 aArasteh, Dariush, K.1 aFinlayson, Elizabeth, U.1 aRubin, Michael, D.1 aSadlier, John uhttps://facades.lbl.gov/publications/recent-technical-improvements-window01540nas a2200133 4500008004100000050001400041245003600055210003400091520113400125100002501259700002901284700002201313856007101335 1994 eng d aLBL-3529800aWINDOW 4.1: Program Description0 aWINDOW 41 Program Description3 a

WINDOW 4.1 is a publicly available IBM PC compatible computer program developed by the Windows and Daylighting Group at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory for calculating total window thermal performance indices (i.e. U-values, solar heat gain coefficients, shading coefficients, and visible transmittances). WINDOW 4.1 provides a versatile heat transfer analysis method consistent with the rating procedure developed by the National Fenestration Rating Council (NFRC). The program can be used to design and develop new products, to rate and compare performance characteristics of all types of window products, to assist educators in teaching heat transfer through windows, and to help public officials in developing building energy codes.

WINDOW 4.1 is an update to WINDOW 4.0. The WINDOW 4 series is a major revision to previous versions of WINDOW. We strongly urge all users to read this manual before using the program. Users who need professional assistance with the WINDOW 4.1 program or other window performance simulation issues are encouraged to contact one or more of the NFRC-accredited Simulation Laboratories.

1 aArasteh, Dariush, K.1 aFinlayson, Elizabeth, U.1 aHuizenga, Charlie uhttps://facades.lbl.gov/publications/window-41-program-description01036nas a2200157 4500008004100000050001400041245005600055210005400111520051900165100002900684700002500713700002200738700002300760700001800783856007700801 1993 eng d aLBL-3394300aWindow 4.0: Documentation of Calculation Procedures0 aWindow 40 Documentation of Calculation Procedures3 a

WINDOW 4.0 is a publicly available IBM PC compatible computer program developed by the Building Technologies Group at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory for calculating the thermal and optical properties necessary for heat transfer analyses of fenestration products. This report explains the calculation methods used in WINDOW 4.0 and is meant as a tool for those interested in understanding the procedures contained in WINDOW 4.0. All the calculations are discussed in the International System of units (SI).

1 aFinlayson, Elizabeth, U.1 aArasteh, Dariush, K.1 aHuizenga, Charlie1 aRubin, Michael, D.1 aReilly, Susan uhttps://facades.lbl.gov/publications/window-40-documentation-calculation